just a few basic notes to help u out but u should expand on these ideas. hope it helps
The concept of work may be divided into two aspects; work, which involves the application of mental or physical effort in order to make or do something but does not receive monetary compensation. As well as paid work, which involves any type of activity, which results in the production of either goods or services, for which the worker receives monetary compensation in the form of wages, salary or profit. (From here on when the concept of ‘work’ is mentioned it shall refer to paid work.)
Work helps satisfy physical, social and psychological needs. Those who are unable to obtain employment must live on unemployment benefits. This can satisfy their physical needs but is often unable to satisfy their social and psychological needs.
Work provides five main functions, these include; providing an income to purchase goods and services, which are either necessary or desirable; it is an integral part of an individual’s social life, contributing to social status, social identity and self-esteem; it allows the opportunity to develop and maintain social relationships and contacts; it provides purpose and meaning to life; and it provides an income which is required to take part in leisure and recreational pursuits.
Work today differs immensely from work of the past. The majority of developed countries have progressed through three stages of economic development: the pre-industrial stage, the industrial stage and the post-industrial stage. The changes accompanying the transition to each of these stages has had a significant effect on the structure of society and on the nature of work and leisure undertaken within society.
During the early to mid eighteenth century, societies were primarily concerned with producing enough food and goods for survival. Throughout the pre-industrial era, the great majority of people were involved in agriculture, either on their own farms or as employees. Work was not separated from other household activities; household work was regarded as part of the overall productive activities of the household. Both male and female, adults and children undertook a variety of household work. However some tasks, for example, cooking, gardening, spinning and weaving, were allocated on the basis in gender but were considered as important as those activities, which produced agricultural goods. During the pre-industrial stage there were no set hours for work as there are today. The time involved in all work, was dependent on how long it took to complete the required tasks.
With the Industrial Revolution during the 1750’s in England, came the separation of work from the home. Production shifted from farms to factories, with a corresponding shift in population from rural areas to urban areas. With the spread of industrialisation and the growth of factories, families found that they could no longer compete with the more cheaply produced factory goods. In order to support the family, men were forced to seek employment outside of the home, thus women had to remain in the home in order to care for the children. As the home and workforce became more separated, women became more financially dependent upon men, thus wifehood and motherhood emerged as a full time unpaid occupation for women.
1769 was a crucial point of change in relation to work. James Watt introduced the steam engine thus enabling steam to be used for power, particularly for the production of cotton textiles, which was the key industry early in this period. Further technological advancements brought the increased use of coal and the introduction of electricity. With this new technology came the factory industries.
During the new industrial era, factory production was organised on the basis of breaking down the productive process into separate activities. A pattern of work emerged involving long and intensive working hours and repetitive fragmented tasks.
Industrialisation contributed to the growth of the middle socio-economic group. Instead of having two distinct groups: the rich and the poor, it brought a continuum of social groups into society. The fast growing and intense changes to society brought with it a change in attitude and economics.
During the twentieth century developed nations have moved from the industrial stage of mechanisation and mass production to the post-industrial stage of technological advances and automation. The table below illustrates the proportion of the Australian workforce employed in categories of industries in 1978 and 1992-93. Since the beginning of this century the proportion of people employed in each of these industries has altered. The following trends are, and have been apparent in the Australian workforce.
Since the late 1960’s employment in manufacturing sectors has declined as a result of decrease in manufacturing. Major growth areas have been in the wholesale and retail trade and in business and community services, particularly in the areas of health, education and welfare. There has been a shift from producing goods to providing services.
The post-industrial stage has brought an expansion of the tertiary industries and a contraction of secondary and primary industries. However, employment in some areas has declined due to technological changes, for example, self-service petrol and automatic telling machines. At the same time the increasing complexity of society has meant an expansion of the information sector.
In many areas, technology has deskilled workers, which has contributed to alienation in the workplace and has made it difficult for many workers to see meaning in their work and to gain satisfaction from work. There is a growing tendency for workers to look toward leisure and recreation for satisfaction and self-expression.
Technological change has also brought about increased mobility for both the individual and the family. Bus, car, train and plane provide members of society with greater opportunity to move away from their homes to take part in work and leisure related activities.
According to the Australian Institute of Family Studies, the notion of traditional roles within families where the man is the ‘breadwinner’ and the wife stays at home to look after the house and children has changed dramatically over the past few decades.
Many men and women are working longer hours as a result of company restructuring. Fewer staff are managing larger workloads and heightened competition both between and within organisations which has increased the pressures of work. While women are re-entering the workforce, they have taken on juggling work and family responsibilities by working flexibly but it appears men have not. Men are working longer hours and father’s predominately continue to work full-time while mothers take on part time work.
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics a survey undertaken in 1996 found that there were 7,636,319 employed people in Australia, representing a 7.7% increase since 1991 (7,086,893). Most of the growth in employment was due to the rise in the number of part-time workers, which increased by 458,204 people. As a proportion of all employed people, full-time workers declined in Australia, from 69.0% in 1991 to 67.8% in 1996. Between 1991 and 1996, there was a 25.1% increase in the number of people employed part-time.
Two factors account for the growth in part time work. The first of these is growth in the service sector, which is more suited to part time employment. The second factor is the increased desire of women to participate in the labour force, particularly on a part time basis.
From the previous results tabulated in relation to the proportion of the Australian workforce employed in categories of industries in 1978 and 1992-93 it has become apparent that the trend in work is yet again heading in a new direction.
In 1996 the top four employing occupations in Australia were Professionals (17.1%), Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers (16.0%), Tradespersons and related workers (13.1%) and Associate professionals (11.3%). Since 1991, there were increases in the proportions of people employed as Professionals (14.8% in 1991), Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers (11.9%) and Associate professionals (7.6%), while the proportion employed as Tradespersons and related workers declined (from 13.8%).
In 1996 the top four employing industry Divisions in Australia were Retail trade (13.6% of all employed people), Manufacturing (12.6%), Property and business services (9.8%) and Health and community services (9.5%). These were also the top four divisions in 1991. Since 1991, there had been growth in the proportion of employed people in Property and business services, and Health and community services (increasing by 2.5 and 1.1 percentage points respectively), an increase in Retail trade (0.4 percentage points), and a decline of 0.2 percentage points in Manufacturing.
However in the year 2002 the trend in work has yet again hit a new phase. According to an article sited in the Sunday Telegraph, 16/06/02 titled; ‘Warning on job choices’ school students are being urged to pick wisely. According to Employment Services Minister Mal Brough occupations such as professional sports, media presentation and music are the way to go, while information technology suffered a slump in vacancies. The hospitality industry, personal trainers, health workers; in particular nurses as well as teachers are all in high demand. Mr Brough said that a job turnover – workers moving between jobs – creates many job opportunities. The idea of a job for life is no longer credible due to the new trends arising in the area of employment.
According to an article sited in the Sydney Morning Herald, 22/06/02 title; ‘Don’t rush me, I’m in my 20s and single-minded’, speaks of a link found in the 2001 census in relation to marriage and work. The 2001 census revealed that 75.6% of 20 to 29 year olds have never been married compared to 35.7% in 1971. Behind this shift lie massive changes in the labour market with its growth in casual, part-time and contract work, having a great influence on young people today. According to the census unemployment, under-employment and low-paid work is more common for young adults today than ever before.
A fiercely growing trend in Australia is known as “McDonaldisation” which involves a reduction in the number of full-time jobs as it involves standardising work processes and employing large numbers of young, unskilled casual workers. Workers are required to perform simple, repetitive tasks, most of which require little to no expertise. This results in workers not being skilled or even deskilling workers.
Rationalising work using McDonald’s techniques and new technology has both advantages and disadvantages. Technology prevents one from undertaking dirty, dangerous and tedious jobs, however, it also displaces and deskills workers. Technology has caused both redundancy and job generation and the speed with which technology has and is changing, holds great implications for structure and organization of work and the workplace in the future.
Technology has played a fundamental role in the changing nature of work within Australia through three stages of economic development: the pre-industrial stage, the industrial stage and the post-industrial stage. The changes accompanying the transition to each of these stages has had a significant effect on the structure of society and on the nature of work and leisure undertaken within society.
Leisure may be defined as the condition of having one’s time free from the demands of work or duty. Leisure has multiple purposes which include providing; ‘time out’ between the tasks which one is obligated to undertake; a means of contrast with other aspects of ones life; a break in ordinary routine; an opportunity to participate in some sort of activity; a time of personal freedom; and an opportunity for personal expression.
The idea of leisure has its origins in ancient times. Archaeological evidence in the form of written evidence and buildings and artefacts confirm the place of leisure activities in the lives and the quality of life of individuals in many ancient civilisations. Throughout time the amount of time which one spends as leisure time has increased and decreased, according to our methods of survival and social structure.
Leisure can involve either active or passive pursuits. From sporting activities to meditating, leisure time is time that is uncommitted, time that is at the disposal of the individual to use as he or she sees fit for the purpose of enjoyment.
Changes that take place in the world of work have great consequences for how much time people have for leisure and for the ways in which they experience it. The amount of time parents spend at work is also a contributing factor as to how much time a child spends carrying out leisurely activities and the type of activity carried out.
For young people today, leisure plays an important role in the process of socialisation and intellectual development. One of the main aspects of leisure for young people today is sport. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics a survey of children's leisure activities in the 12 months to April 2000 found that 1.6 million children (50%) participated outside of school hours in sport as a leisure activity that had been organised by a school, club or association.
According to the results recorded, both male and female participation peaked at 11 years of age. However, across all ages boys were more likely to participate than girls, making the total participation rate 66% for boys and 52% for girls. There was also a higher percentage of boys participating in more than one sport; 32% of boys compared with 20% of girls.
The most popular sports for boys were outdoor soccer (20%), swimming (13%), Australian Rules football (13%) and outdoor cricket (10%). For girls, the most popular sports were netball (18%), swimming (16%), tennis (8%) and basketball (6%). Thus one may conclude from these results that gender directly affects the sporting leisure activities undertaken by today’s youth.
The Industrial Revolution was an important factor in the regulation of working hours and changed the pattern of leisure time as a result. For some the Industrial Revolution meant longer hours of work and thus less leisure time. For others the technological change introduced more variety in the type of leisure pursuit available and the number of hours available in which to pursue these leisure activities.
In the 1800’s the introduction of the train provided an efficient form of transportation to new destinations for those who wished to seek new forms of leisure as the aeroplane does in the 20 century. Technological advancements have changed the way in which leisure for all; including youth is enjoyed. A study undertaken by the Australian Bureau of Statistics presents the trends relevant to leisure activities of Australian children aged 5 to 14 years. The study commencing 12 months prior to April 2000 provides a general idea of the trends within leisure activities of youth.
Participation in the five selected leisure activities outside of school hours ranged from 31% for art and craft activities to 97% for watching TV or videos. Boys and girls were equally likely to watch TV or videos; however, there were significant differences between the sexes for the other leisure activities.
The research undertaken by the Australian Bureau of Statistics made evident some very interesting and relevant trends. Leisure activities carried out by children aged 5 to 14 years differ according to the particular activity, gender, age, as well as the employment status of parents
31% of children skateboarded or rollerbladed outside of school hours. This activity was more popular with boys at 36%, than girls at 26%. The percentage of children skateboarding or rollerblading peaked at 39% for children aged 8 years; this compares with 20% of 5 year olds and 21% of 14 year olds.
64% of children aged 5 to 14 years; 71% of boys and 56% of girls, rode a bike outside of school hours. Gender has little significance in participation between the sexes for children aged 5 to 8 years. However, for children aged 14 years, the percentage of boys riding bikes (61%) is over twice that of girls (28%).
The study found that 97% of children watched television or videos outside of school hours. There were significant differences across the age groups in relation to the time spent on this activity. About 45% of viewers aged 5 to 8 years watched at least 20 hours of TV or videos over a two-week period compared with 53% of viewers aged 9 to 11 years and 59% of those aged 12 to 14 years.
Electronic / computer games were played by 69% of children; 79% of boys and 58% of girls, outside of school hours. Participation rates ranged from 65% for boys aged 5 years to between 82% and 84% for boys aged 9 years and over. For girls, participation in electronic and computer games fluctuated greatly over various age groups. From 44% at 5 years of age to a peak of 66% at 11 years of age and fell to 53% for 14-year-old girls.
An interesting finding was that children living in couple families with both parents employed, had higher levels of participation in electronic or computer games; 72%, than those living in couple families with unemployed parents; 58%. Thus one may conclude that the state of employment of a child’s parents directly affects the amount of time spent on this particular leisure activity.
44% of children; 55% of girls and 34% of boys, spent time on art and craft activities outside of school hours. For both sexes, participation in art and craft activities was less popular for the older age groups.
In the 12 months to April 2000, 95%; nearly 2.5 million children aged 5 to 14 years used a computer during or outside of school hours. Usage increased with age from 79% of children aged 5 years to over 98% of children aged between 11 years and 14 years, with no significant difference in usage between the sexes.
Nearly 1.9 million children; 71% of all Australian children aged 5 to 14 years, used a computer at home. For 5 to 8 year olds who used a computer at home, the most common activities on the computer were playing games (89%) and school or educational uses (70%). 95% of users aged 12 to 14 years, used computers at home for school or educational activities, followed by 78% for playing games. 85% of 12 to 14 year olds used home computers more frequently, compared with 63% of 5 to 8 year old home computer users.
1.2 million children accessed the Internet during or outside of school hours in the 12 months ending April 2000. These children represented 47% of all Australian children aged 5 to 14 years and 49% of children who used computers. The percentage of all children accessing the Internet ranged from 8% for children aged 5 years to 76% for children aged 14 years.
An interesting finding was that children's access to the Internet varied with the employment status of their parents. Children living in one-parent families with their parent employed were most likely to access the Internet (55%), while those living in couple families with no employed parent (31%) were least likely to do so.
Across all ages, the most popular reason for accessing the Internet at home was school or educational uses, being 83% of all home Internet users. Of those aged 12 to 14 years, 64% accessed the Internet for email or chat rooms compared with 89% for school or educational uses.
From the results of the study under taken by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, it has become apparent that trends within leisure activities are directly related to technological advancements as well as employment of the child’s parents. Technology has brought with it further leisure activities such as internet access, computer games, even sms messaging which a great majority of teens take part in today.
Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent upon the work undertaken and level of education. Professional sports people engage in leisure activities and also receive monetary compensation, thus for some people the skills they have also extend into a means of earning a living. Educational institutions provide individuals with the necessary skills and the means to participate in meaningful employment. This in turn influences the types of leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and a degree of choice about participation in such activities.
Shifting technology and the trend toward a shorter working week have great implications for the nature of work in the near future. For many the prospect of working from home will be a reality as a result of technological advancements. Another trend is the increase in the number of people employed on a casual and part time basis. This may well continue especially in the services sector as an increase in amount of leisure time available accelerates the demand for leisure related goods and services. The relationship between work, leisure and technology is very complex. Technological developments certainly have implications for future work and leisure patterns.
